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Preferred language:

M Mackenzie - Mwetupunga

(9413 total words in this text)
(504 Reads)

M

002046
Mackenzie, John
* .1835
+ .1899
---
John Mackenzie was a missionary in Bechuanaland. His reminiscences contain some information on 19th century Namibia.
---
Gender: m
Field of activity: REL
Profession: Missionary

RAW DATA: Tabler 1973:72; DSAB;

002047
MacLeod
*
---
MacLeod was a mission schoolmaster of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society. He reached Warmbad with his wife and sister and the Ridsdales on 27.01.1844. His presence is documented until August 1847.
---
Gender: m

RAW DATA: Tabler 1973:72;

000396
Maercker, Georg
* 21.09.1865 at Waldenburg, Germany
+ 31.12.1924
First entry to Namibia: 28.01.1890
---
Georg Maercker was born on 21.09.1865 at Waldenburg in Germany. He was a Schutztruppe officer in Namibia and German East Africa. He fought under Wissmann in the East African "Arab Revolt". He landed in Namibia on 28.01.1890, commanding a military reinforcement troop of 43 soldiers. He fought in the German Namibian War of 1903-08. He was a commander of the Schutztruppe in Berlin and d Divisional commander in World War One. After the world war, he was the leader of several counter-revolutionary military campaigns in Germany. In 1922, he formed the Deutscher Kolonialkriegerbund.
---
Gender: m
Field of activity: MIL
Profession: Military officer

Collections/Papers:
1). Heeresarchiv (Papers 1877-1924)* Destroyed by bombing in 1945
RAW DATA: Fischer 1935:88-89, 175, 2070236, 257, 262; Drechsler 1966:235, 311, 361;

000230
Maharero, [Kamaharero], Ovaherero Chief
[Kamaherero - alternative spelling]
[Tjamuaha, Maharero]
* ca.1820
+ 07.10.1890 at Okahandja
---
Maharero (Kamaharero) was one of the most powerful 19th century Ovaherero leaders. He was the son of Tjamuaha and his first wife, Otjorozumo. Tjamuaha was the son of Tjirwe, son of Mutjise, son of Mbunga, son of Tjituka, son of Kasupi, son of Vatje, son of Kengeza, of the oruzo orwohorongo. Otjorozumo was the daughter of Ndomo, daughter of Peraa, daughter of Mbondo, daughter of Mukuejuva, of the eanda yomukueyuva. He was born ca. 1820.

Maharero, although later on good terms with Carl Hugo Hahn, never converted to Christianity. His son Wilhelm Maharero, however, was baptised and became a student at the Augustineum. Maharero was praised in many songs. His father Tjamuaha (born ca. 1790) and Maharero settled in Windhoek on Jonker’s demand. The two Ovaherero groups under their leaders Oove ua Muhoko Kahitjene and Tjamuaha formed an alliance with Jonker Afrikaner (Christmas Peace 1842). Like his father, he became an ally and tributary of Jonker Afrikaner in 1843 but from 1863 onwards, under the Rhenish missionary influence, he successfully challenged Orlam Afrikaner dominance. In 1851 Francis Galton arranged for a peace treaty between Jonker Afrikaner and the Ovaherero. Jonker Afrikaner, however, was still determined to prevent the establishment of any relations between European missionaries and Ovaherero chiefs independent of his control. On 12.03.1851 Galton offered to arrange for a peace treaty between the Ovaherero communities of Oove ua Muhoko Kahitjene, one of Jonker’s former allies, and Chief John Samuel Aron Mungunda from Otjombuindja in the Ozongoto area, but Kahitjene declined the offer. In a subsequent skirmish between Mungunda’s sons and Kahitjene, the latter was killed. The Ovaherero decided that the Mungunda community should settle together with Tjamuaha’s son, Maharero. Kahitjene’s downfall can be directly attributed to his attempts to win access to arms with assistance of missionary Hahn. Maharero left Otjimbingwe and returned to Tjamuaha’s place, Okahandja. In 1852 Jonker Afrikaner, extremely anxious to prevent Europeans from exploring Hereroland and Ovamboland and supplying Ovaherero with arms, attacked Tjamuaha and Maharero at Otjosemba. Even Hahn lost his cattle. Jonker moved on to Omambonde and the Omatako omuramba (fossil river) (Khoekhoegowab: ||Khuob) at the Omatako Mountains (#Hakha) and attacked Otjihinamaparero and the community of Chief Katjikurure. He extended his attacks as far north as the Ondonga area in Ovamboland.

During 1860 Maharero's father, Ua Tjirue Tjamuaha, undertook a journey to Kaokoland to unite the Ovaherero against Jonker Afrikaner. In December 1861 Tjamuaha died. Maharero moved to Otjimbingwe. On 15.06.1863, ||Oaseb, together with the Orlam Afrikaner Chief Christian Afrikaner, Piet Koper !Gamab of the Fransman Nama and the ||Hawoben leader, Karl Hendrik (Ses)(!Nanib #karib #Arisemab), was defeated by Andersson's "private army" in the battle of Otjimbingwe. Philippus Katjimune on the Ovaherero side was also killed in the battle. Neither Maharero nor any of his associates were involved in this initial battle, and they remained largely aloof until the third encounter a year later. Although the Ovaherero leader Christian Wilhelm Zeraua was Maharero’s senior, he declined the leadership and Maharero became the supreme Ovaherero Chief in 1862. The missionaries and Ovaherero called the war against the Orlam Afrikaner a "war of liberation". Explorer, hunter and trader James Chapman was one observer who believed the Ovaherero to be exaggerating their experience. All the battles of the 1860s must be seen as part of the Rhenish Missionary Society’s devastating scheme for weakening any indigenous political power that might obstruct the forthcoming German colonial annexation. On 05.03.1864 Andersson’s "private army" and the ||Khau-*gõan (or Swartboois), together with the ||Ô-gain (or "Groot Doden" – Chief Jager #Aimab from the Kuiseb River) under the command of Green, attacked the Orlam Afrikaners in the battle of Witvley. Carl Hugo Hahn fully supported the Andersson raid to destroy the Orlam Afrikaners and their allies, and assured Andersson of "my and all the missionaries’ fullest support". Andersson and Green made a firm decision that they would now ally themselves with Maharero and raise a large army against the Nama alliance. The Orlams make a call on all Namaland chiefs "to come and help them, Andersson and the missionaries want to take the country away". In 1865 Maharero concluded a peace treaty with the Topnaar Nama (#Aonin). On 05.07.1867 William Coates Palgrave obtained permission from Maharero to move freely in Hereroland. On 12.12.1867 the Orlam Afrikaners again attacked Otjimbingwe, but the turning point in their history had come with the defeats they suffered against the Ovaherero under Andersson’s command in 1863 and 1864. Jan Jonker escaped to Walvis Bay, which was plundered by the Orlam Afrikaners. Maharero moved in consequence of these events to Okahandja (January/February 1868). The reasons for this were not only the Orlam defeats but the strong influence of the missionaries and the Europeans on the Ovaherero which Maharero wanted to escape. Hahn’s mission idea suffered a decisive defeat. On 17.05.1870 Jan Jonker Afrikaner tried to persuade Maharero to form an "anti-European alliance", but Maharero declined the peace offer under the influence of the Rhenish Missionary Society (Hahn). On 23.09.1870 Leaders (Maharero, Jan Jonker Afrikaner, Kido Witbooi of Gibeon, David Christian Frederiks of Bethany and Jakobus Isaak of Berseba) and missionaries (Hahn, Diehl and Irle of Okahandja, Brincker of Groß Barmen, Olpp of Gibeon, seven Finnish missionaries and the trader C Conrath) organised a peace conference at Okahandja. A treaty was signed in which Jan Jonker was designated "co-regent", i.e. Maharero’s subordinate. Ten years of peace followed (until 1880).

Maharero emerged in the 1870's as the first Ovaherero paramount chief, though his leadership was not uncontested. In 1872 Maharero asked the British High Commissioner and Cape Governor, Henry Barkly, for British protection. Consequently the Cape Government started to take an interest in the affairs of the territory. Barkly directed a letter to the Nama chiefs and cautioned them to "keep peace". On 21.06.1874 in the presence of Green, Maharero, together with Chief Therawa from Omaruru and Chief Kambazembi wa Kangombe (Kangombe is Kambazembi’s father) from Otjozondjupa (Waterberg), requested Henry Barkly as British High Commissioner in the Cape Colony to prevent a group of Transvaal Boers (Hendrik van Zyl) from settling in Damaraland. This led the Cape authorities to find a Special Commissioner for Damaraland. William Coates Palgrave was duly appointed. In September 1876 the Ovaherero chiefs and Palgrave hold the Main Conference of Okahandja. Kambazembi did not attend. The letter to Cape Governor Barkly was signed by Maharero, Christian Wilhelm Zeraua from Otjimbingwe, the Ovambanderu Chief, Salomo Aponda from Otjikango and Wilhelm Maharero, oldest son of Maharero. As witnesses the letter was also signed by missionaries Peter Heinrich Brincker, Carl Ludwig Hermann Hegner and Botolf Bernhard Björklund, and traders Heinrich Kleinschmidt, Robert Lewis and J.J. Christie. Consequently, on 02.08.1877, Palgrave sent a letter to Maharero informing him that the Cape Government was considering establishing Hereroland as a protectorate. However, in June 1878 Jakobus Isaak of Berseba and Moses Witbooi of Gibeon contacted Hermanus van Wyk of Rehoboth to establish a united front due to their distrust of Palgrave. Isaak and Witbooi communicated this motion of no-confidence in Palgrave to Maharero.

On 23.08.1880 war between the Nama and Ovaherero broke out, after the battle of Gurumanas (||Gurumâ!nâs). The Ovaherero leader Karuvingo and the Nama leader Nu-*narub were both killed in the skirmish. The Ovaherero escaped to Okahandja where Wilhelm Maharero, the oldest son of Maharero and Riarua (Nama name "Amadamap"), received orders to repel the expected Nama attack. Two days later Windhoek was destroyed by Maharero. On 26.09.1880 Jan Jonker Afrikaner declared war against Maharero. On 28.10.1880 Maharero lost the battle of Okangondo. On 10.12.1880 Jan Jonker Afrikaner started his campaign against Maharero by moving northwards to Otjikango (Groß Barmen). Two days later Wilhelm Maharero defeated Jan Jonker Afrikaner but was wounded in the battle of Otjikango. Three sons of Chief Kukuri of Otjosazu were killed. On the Nama side David Christian Frederiks of Bethany and the Chief of the Kai||khaun from Hoachanas, |Gôbeb #Goraxab (Petrus, probably murdered during the battle), the last offspring of the ||Oaseb dynasty, were killed. Oral evidence had it that his successor, Manasse !Noreseb Gamab (from 1881 until 1905), gave the order to murder |Gôbeb. The surviving Nama, inter alia Jakobus Isaak of Berseba, escaped first to Windhoek and later to Rehoboth and further south. On 14.12.1880, Wilhelm Maharero died after being wounded in the battle of Otjikango. On 04.03.1881 Moses Witbooi declared war against Maharero, and on 26.03.1881 Jan Jonker Afrikaner proposed to Riarua that he should kill Maharero in order to establish peace. Riarua declined to do this and Jan Jonker escaped to Tsebris and later to the Gamsberg (in the Khoekhoegowab language (Nama/Dama): #Gans(berg), meaning "screening", "closing" or "blocking" mountain). On 15.11.1881 the South African Cape authorities decided to send the former Rhenish missionary Carl Hugo Hahn to Hereroland to mediate in the conflict and to relieve the Ovaherero threat to Walvis Bay. On 15.02.1882 Maharero made peace with Hermanus van Wyk of Rehoboth, with missionary Heidmann as mediator. On returning to Rehoboth, Heidmann found Rhenish missionaries Krönlein and Hegner there. Krönlein was tasked by the Rhenish Missionary Society to mediate for peace between the Ovaherero and the different Nama communities. On 03.03.1882 Hahn mediated a separate peace treaty with Maharero and Abraham Swartbooi. The ||Khau-|gõan (Swartboois) moved consequently to Franzfontein. On 13.06.1882 the Rhenish missionaries Diehl, Krönlein and Eich, together with the Ovaherero, managed to establish peace with most of the Nama groups, negotiating with Jakobus Isaak of Berseba, Manasse !Noreseb of Hoachanas and Hendrik "Kol" Windstaan of the Groot Doden. Moses Witbooi and Jan Jonker Afrikaner, both of whom were losing their influence, did not attend the peace negotiations. The question of the southern border of Hereroland was not resolved. At the beginning of 1883, Maharero decided to establish the southern border of Hereroland himself. He left Okahandja, Otjikango and Otjiseva and moved together with Riarua first to Windhoek and later to Aris. There he was attacked by the Groot Doden. The Groot Doden were defeated and dispersed (last descendants live to-day in the area of Schlip). Maharero established the southern border of Hereroland from Gurumanas to Gobabis and Rietfontein. On 24.06.1884 Hendrik Witbooi made peace with Maharero after an indecisive battle in Onguheva. It was arranged that Windhoek and Gobabis, which was destroyed, would be rebuilt. On 01.09.1884 Maharero again moved with his people to Okahandja.

In 1884 Lüderitz sent his brother August and the geologist C Hoepfner to Okahandja to negotiate an agreement with Maharero. Due to the efforts of the British trader Lewis the negotiations were unsuccessful. Ten days later, in a proclamation in Otjiherero and German, Maharero declared himself "King of Hereroland". On 08.11.1884 Palgrave returned to SWA to persuade Maharero to accept British instead of German protection. In late November 1884 Vogelsang travelled to Okahandja in order to negotiate a protection treaty with Maharero. He was, however, unsuccessful. On 17.10.1885 Hendrik Witbooi was defeated by Maharero in the battle of Osona (Witbooi lost his two sons: Jeremia and Salomo, a third one, Jesaias, was wounded), although both sides were prepared to strengthen the peace agreement of Onguheva. Witbooi moved to Gurumanas. On 21.10.1885 a protection treaty was concluded between Maharero and Göring in the presence of Secretary Nels and missionaries Diehl and Büttner. Göring later noted that Diehl and Büttner convinced Maharero even though he (Göring) had his doubts that Maharero had the right to sign on behalf of all Hereroland. Maharero did not cede any land to the Germans and never promised to do so. In his eyes the missionaries had compromised seriously themselves as allies of the Germans. Consequently Maharero ordered that all the German officials should leave, and the mission church in Okahandja had to be closed. The missionaries were allowed to stay in Hereroland although the bonds of trust and friendship between Rhenish missionaries and the Ovaherero that have previously existed, were now destroyed.

On 03.11.1885 a protection treaty was concluded between Manasse Tyiseseta of Omaruru and Göring in the presence of missionary Büttner. In spite of this treaty Manasse managed to maintain a polity independent from the Germans and Maharero. This independence was based on sound trade links with the Cape Colony for arms and ammunition as well as a disciplined armed force. On 17.04.1886 Hendrik Witbooi again attacked Maharero at Okahandja, but was defeated. The Ovaherero followed Hendrik to Hoachanas. On 14.09.1887 Maharero declared to Göring that the mining rights granted to the Deutsche Kolonialgesellschaft für Südwest-Afrika (DKGSWA) were null and void, except for the rights of the trader Robert Lewis to the Ebony and Otavi mines. Germany, however, would retain the right to regulate mining in the Ovaherero area (as per the treaty signed in the presence of missionary Diehl). On 30.10.1888 Göring met Maharero at Okahandja in the presence of the British trader Robert Lewis. Dissatisfied with the Germans’ inability to protect the Ovaherero against Witbooi, Maharero nullified the Protection Treaty of 1885 and made Lewis his official agent. Göring was forced to seek refuge in British Walvis Bay. Responsibility for this debacle rested with the German Government, which seemed to believe that the territory could be efficiently administered by three officials and 20 soldiers.

In June 1889 it was one of Kurt von Francois’, later successor to Göring (August 1890), first activities is to visit Maharero at Okahandja. On 07.10.1889 the first military fortress, "Wilhelmsfeste" near Tsaobis, was founded by Von Francois. Maharero objected to the establishment of this colonial fortress in Hereroland. A transport with arms and ammunition organised by the trader Robert Lewis for Maharero was stopped in Tsaobis. In consequence of this Lewis was expelled from the colony. The protection treaty with the Germans was reinvoked in 1890. On 07.10.1890 Maharero died and was buried in Okahandja alongside his father, Tjamuaha. His successor was Samuel Maharero (1890-1904).
---
Gender: m
Field of activity: POL

Mother: Otjorozumo
Father: Tjamuaha
Children: Wilhelm Maharero
Samuel Maharero (1856-1923)

Collections/Papers:
1). NAN: A.3 (Correspondence, proclamations and ordinances)
RAW DATA: P.Reiner 1992:424; Lau 1985:V1275; Otto-Reiner; Sundermeier 1987; Pool 1991; DSAB II:425; Drechsler 1966:26, 29, 33, 36, 52-54, 69, 74, 99-100, 318, 327, 332, 336; Chronology of Namibian History, 2003 (Dierks);

002208
Maharero, Alfons Kaihepaovazandu, Ovaherero Chief
*
+
---
Alfons Kaihepaovazandu Maharero is the Chief of the Maharero/Tjamuaha Royal House since 1999. He lives in Okonja near Otjinene.
---
Gender: m

RAW DATA: Chronology of Namibian History, 2003 (Dierks);

<IMG height=74 alt="Namibia_Otjozondjupa_Okahandja_HereroDay2003_1.JPG (235422 bytes)" src="Namibia_Otjozondjupa_Okahandja_HereroDay2003_1_small.JPG" width=100 border=2>
Copyright of Photo: Dr. Klaus Dierks

001707
Maharero, Frederick
[Maharero, Friedrich -alternative name]
* in Namibia
+ 11.09.1952 in Okahandja
---
Frederick Maharero was the oldest son of Samuel Maharero who joined Hendrik Witbooi with a Ovaherero unit in January 1905 at the Auob River (Battle of Groß Nabas). Later he escaped with his followers to Bechuanaland and was only able to visit his motherland fifteen years later, after the German defeat in W World War One. On 20.07.1920 Frederick Maharero was allowed by the South African authorities to visit SWA. Missionaries reported that Maharero was collecting money from his father’s followers, so that a farm could be bought for Samuel Maharero. Following the funeral of his father, Samuel Maharero, on 26.08.1923, Frederick appealed to the SWA Administration to be permitted to stay in SWA. His appeal was backed by Hosea Kutako, Traugott Maharero, Alfred Maharero, Salatiel Kambazembi (who returned to SWA around 1920), Joel Kasetura, Asser Kamusuvise, Silphanus Mungunda and Wilfried Kazondonga. Frederick was not allowed to remain permanently in SWA, and in December 1924 he was expelled, because the Ovaherero adopted a "defiant attitude" after Maharero’s renewed arrival in the territory. In 1945 Hosea Kutako formed the Herero Chiefs’ Council, with the co-operation of Chief Frederick Maharero who was still in exile in Bechuanaland. In April 1946 South Africa conducted a referendum in SWA. Namibians were tricked by asking them whether they would like to join the Chinese, the Russians or the British. Many indigenes clearly did not understand the political implications of the referendum, which resulted in a majority in favour of incorporation, especially in Ovamboland and the Kavango. The vote result was 208 850 in favour of incorporation and 33 520 against, while 56 700 people were not consulted. The groups voting against were the Nama, Dama and Ovaherero, i.e. the groups that suffered by far the most under German colonial rule. The UN General Assembly did not allow itself to be fooled by this "referendum". Opposition to incorporation came from various quarters. Hosea Kutako (together with Nikanor Hoveka) of SWA was the first to petition the United Nations. Kutako favoured being placed under British trusteeship. He was, however, refused a passport by the SA authorities. He contacted Frederick Maharero in Bechuanaland to assist him in sending the petition. Maharero again contacted Thekedi Khama of Bechuanaland to help the Namibians in their plight. It is through Khama that the Anglican priest Michael Scott became involved as petitioner to the UN to oppose incorporation. Frederick Maharero died on 11.09.1952 at Okahandja. He was only permitted shortly before his death to return to his motherland.
---
Gender: m

Father: Samuel Maharero (-1923)
RAW DATA: Drechsler 1966:215; Nuhn 2000:92; Chronology of Namibian History, 2003 (Dierks);

000579
Maharero, Samuel (Katjikumbwa or Ourihuuna), Ovaherero Chief
A Reflection on the German-Ovaherero War, 1904-1908
* 1856
+ 14.03.1923 at Serowe, Bechuanaland (now: Botswana)
Last departure from Namibia: September 1904
---
Samuel Maharero (Katjikumbwa or Ourihuuna) was the son of Maharero (Kamaharero) and Katare. He was born in 1856. Although he always remained in a vicious circle between co-operation with and resistance to the German colonial power (until the end of 1903), he opposed the colonial take-over of the German Empire in the beginning. For instance, on 18.08.1889, Maharero wrote to Von Francois: "If you did not come with warlike intentions, then I ask you once again to pay heed to what I say, do not needlessly spend your money but rather go home. If you do not want to listen to my words then please declare so openly and tell me directly that you are at war with us." For the Germans the only colony considered as suitable for extensive settlement by Europeans (Germans) was Namibia. German settler ideology envisaged to create a "New Germany". Under these conditions, any challenge to colonial rule was tantamount to disparaging national honour and grandeur. Within less than two decades, German colonial rule had resulted to subdue the various Namibian communities into this settlement philosophy by a policy of "divide and rule". This policy was designed to further the settlement project and, with the words of Theodor Leutwein, "to gradually accustom the natives to the new dispensation. Of their former independence, nothing but memories would be left for them". The lands occupied by the Ovaherero would be alienated and turned into farms for German settlers, the herds of cattle would gradually pass over into the hands of those settlers, and the Namibian indigenes themselves would be turned into landless workers on the lands they formerly considered their heritage. Under these circumstances Samuel Maharero had to land among the wheels of history.

When it became clear that Samuel lobbied for German support for his succession of the chieftaincy he was opposed by other Namibian leaders. On 30.05.1890 Hendrik Witbooi wrote to Samuel Maharero, stating: "You will eternally regret that you have given your land and your right to rule into the hands of the whites." After the death of Maharero (Kamaharero) in October 1890, there was uncertainty on whether Samuel Maharero would succeed in usurping the chieftainship. Maharero was a faithful follower of the Rhenish Missionary Society and consequently the colonial authorities’ first choice as a candidate in the election of a new chieftain. Samuel’s rival, Nikodemus Kavikunua, was not supported by the Germans. After he renewed the "protection treaty" with the Germans on 28.10.1890, he succeeded to the throne of Maharero (03.08.1891), but his position remained unendorsed by a number of other Ovaherero leaders, among them Nikodemus Kavikunua, Kandji Tjetjo of Owikokorero, Manasse Tyiseseta of Omaruru, and Kambazembi wa Kangombe from the Waterberg (Otjozondjupa) as well as the Ovambanderu leader Kahimemua Nguvauva and Riarua, Maharero’s former advisor. These leaders also openly criticised him for his pre-1904 collaboration with the German colonial administration (for which Maharero was promoted by the Germans to the position of "Paramount Chief of the Ovaherero"). But, on 05.07.1892 Ovaherero and Ovambanderu under the leadership of Assa Riarua (son of Maharero’s former advisor Riarua), as well as Nikodemus Kavikunua, Daniel, Barnabas and Justus Kavizeri, attacked Hendrik Witbooi’s stronghold Hornkranz but were defeated. On their way back to Windhoek, the unsuspecting Ovaherero were attacked by some German settlers under the command of John Ludwig. Two Ovaherero were killed, some were wounded and cattle were driven off. This incident was never followed up by the German authorities, and Samuel Maharero’s faith in the Germans was seriously shaken. In November a peace treaty was agreed between Hendrik Witbooi and Maharero, because Witbooi perceived their conflict to be secondary to the threat posed by German colonialism. This peace treaty led to the employment of increased German troops in the colony.

In 1893 Samuel Maharero’s struggle for the chieftainship was still not resolved because Ovambanderu leader Nikodemus Kavikunua still claimed this right. Also, Maharero’s former advisor, Riarua, was hostile to Samuel. In January 1894 the new Governor (Landeshauptmann of the colony and by Imperial Order was appointed as "Governor" on 18.04.1898), Theodor Leutwein, landed at Swakopmund. Leutwein reported that the Ovaherero had an estimated 500 000 cattle. He expressed the hope that once the population pressure would become acute, the Ovaherero would be forced to sell their huge herds to the "white" settlers. However, this was for many years not the case and instead of this, for the first time, the effects of overgrazing became apparent as the Ovaherero herds were forced into an ever-increasing small area. One of Leutwein's first tasks was to visit Maharero in February 1894. In April Ovaherero Chief Kambazembi of the Waterberg attempted to reconcile Nikodemus Kavikunua and Chief Riarua with Samuel Maharero. He was, however, not successful. Riarua in alliance with Kandji Tjetjo even raided Samuel’s cattle posts. Consequently Samuel, in fear of the Okahandja Ovaherero, moved to Osona. Nikodemus Kavikunua visited Windhoek to lobby for German support against Samuel, without any success because Leutwein was away in the south and Gustav Duft had no authority to negotiate. On 25.06. Leutwein took Samuel’s side, stripping Riarua of all authority during negotiations at Okahandja. On 26.11.1894 Leutwein persuaded Samuel Maharero and Zacharias Zeraua of Otjimbingwe to meet Manasse Tyiseseta at Omaruru to seek agreement between the Ovaherero leaders. Leutwein’s demonstration of power led to the downfall of Manasse’s independent position and to the establishment of a German military garrison at Omaruru.

In December 1894 Leutwein concluded a treaty with Samuel Maharero for the establishment of the southern border of Hereroland, which subsequently had serious consequences for the Ovaherero and marked the start of their loss of land and cattle. In consequence Samuel Maharero requested Leutwein to shift the southern border. A serious clash of interests between the Ovaherero and Germans was consequently inevitable. Maharero confirmed, however, the land rights of the Rhenish Missionary Society in Hereroland. At the end of December 1894, a dispute over the southern border in the eastern sector arose between Ovambanderu leaders Kahimemua Nguvauva and Nikodemus Kavikunua and the Germans. Nikodemus still opposed Samuel Maharero, also on the border dispute, because the land question was an extremely sensitive issue for the Ovaherero and Ovambanderu. The fierce and bitter border quarrel brought the dispute between Maharero and Kavikunua to a head. During May 1895 Leutwein, Samuel Maharero and Riarua met Kavikunua and Kahimemua at Otjinauanaua. An agreement was reached which eventually led to the downfall of Nikodemus and Kahimemua. One month later Leutwein concluded a treaty with Kavikunua which enforced harsh border control between Ovambanderu and German settler areas. Kavikunua sought a closer relationship with Samuel Maharero, thus breaking with Kahimemua. Nikodemus’ claim to Gobabis was, however, rejected. Instead of this the Germans established a garrison at Gobabis and a military post at Olifantskloof, ostensibly to control the trade to and from the Bechuanaland Protectorate. On 01.07.1895 new punitive measures were announced for those Ovaherero and Ovambanderu who transgressed the southern border between Hereroland and the German settler areas. On 27.08.1895 Leutwein concluded a treaty with Samuel Maharero at Grootfontein for the establishment of the northern border of Hereroland. From March to May 1896 Ovambanderu and Khauas Nama, led by Eduard Lambert, staged uprisings against German authority. Within a month the uprising indigenes were defeated in the battles of Gobabis (in which Lieutenant Lampe of Gobabis and Eduard Lambert were killed) and Namdas (Siegfeld). On 08.04.1896 Leutwein issued a proclamation at Kowas where, in agreement with Samuel Maharero, he dismissed Kavikunua and Kahimemua from their positions as chiefs. Some nine days later Riarua and Tjetjo turned their backs on Kavikunua and Kahimemua and supported the protection treaty between Samuel and the Germans. On 06.05.1896 the Ovambanderu were defeated in the battle of Otjunda (Sturmfeld). Kahimemua surrendered to the Germans. Kavikunua, however, did not participate in the battles of Gobabis and Otjunda. Kahimemua sent Ovambanderu to Ngamiland (present-day Botswana) under the leadership of his son, Hiatuvao Nguvauva, father of the later Ovambanderu Chief Munjuku Nguvauva II. This was the first wave of Ovaherero to flee to present-day Botswana. Some Ovaherero escaped into the north-east of the territory. They settled in the area of Karakuwisa. The Khauas Nama ceased to exist as a political entity. All surviving Khauas Nama were taken to Windhoek where they were placed in a concentration camp and were used as forced labour by the German authorities. Karl Dove wrote in the Deutsche Kolonialzeitung: "It is to be hoped that the Imperial Governor will not be prevented by the sentimental humanitarianism of certain quarters from sending all the Khauas falling into his hands to the gallows ... ". On 12.06.1896 Nikodemus Kavikunua and Kahimemua Nguvauva from the Ovambanderu were executed after a court-martial trial in Okahandja. Samuel Maharero supported the executions.

During April 1897 a rinderpest epidemic which had already entered the territory by late 1896 reached Windhoek. The disease wiped out Ovaherero cattle (approx. 50%). Locusts and drought forced Ovaherero to sell their land and cattle and work for German farmers. A cultural crisis of pastoralists losing their very foundations ensued. Deprived of their wealth in cattle, weakened by the activities of Samuel Maharero and Theodor Leutwein, and driven ever further into debt, some Ovaherero chiefs attempted to recoup their losses through raiding (especially in the Ovambanderu areas), exporting labour and selling land. In July 1899 the Rhenish missionaries Diehl and Viehe sharply attacked Samuel Maharero for "selling" the Okakango locale, north of Okahandja, to settle his debts. In November the same year a quarrel broke out between Samuel Maharero and Michael Tyiseseta, son of Manasse Tyiseseta of Omaruru. Leutwein intervened and explained that Samuel had no direct authority over Michael’s people. It was now clear that the German authorities only supported Samuel against his fellow Ovaherero leaders as long as it suited German interests. In 1901 Assa Riarua reported that he was roughly evicted from a bakery in Windhoek. Samuel Maharero stated that his life was being threatened by the German trader Von Michaelis. On 31.01.1902 Leutwein, still not in a hurry to establish "native reserves" in Hereroland, gave orders to investigate the possibilities for native reserves in the Windhoek, Omaruru, Karibib and Gobabis districts. Samuel Maharero got increasing resistance to the sale of land in Okahandja. The construction of the state railway between Swakopmund and Windhoek was the main reason for this. On 05.03.1902 the Okapuka locale was sold by Samuel Maharero. Nine days later Rhenish Missionary Diehl expressed concern about the future of the Ovaherero congregation of Otjiseva due to the fact that Samuel Maharero had sold this place to traders to pay his debts. On 07.06.1902 a commission was appointed by the German Government to investigate the problem of the credit system and how "natives" should settle their debts to traders. The credit regulations outlawing the sale of "tribal" land to curb abuses, led to the traders using even harsher methods to claim arrears. This increase in trading activity brought more problems for Samuel Maharero. Traders, such as Wallace of Okombahe, held him responsible for the debts of his subjects. However, on 31.07.1902 District Chief of Okahandja, Zürn, relieved the pressure on Samuel Maharero by declaring that "while Samuel himself still has unpaid debts, he could not accept responsibility for the debts of others". In 1903 it can be reported that "white" infringers of the law were increasingly favoured by the law courts. The most sensational case was the initial dismissal of a certain Dietrich after the murder of the daughter-in-law of the Otjimbingwe Chief, Zacharias Zeraua. The Ovaherero unleashed a storm of protest. The re-trial found Dietrich guilty and he was sentenced to three years’ imprisonment. On 02.03.1903 Samuel Maharero sold the Otjihavera locale to the firm Wecke & Voigts. On 06.06.1903 Leutwein wrote to the Windhoek Magistrate’s Court to issue the following warning: "Any delay in acting against the traders who [are] guilty of malpractices [will] endanger the lives of whites in Hereroland. Complaints lodged by Hereros against whites [are] to be investigated." In September 1903 the Ovaherero were bewildered by the news that OMEG planned to construct the Otavi railway line. Samuel Maharero refused to give up any land along the new line. On 03.10.1903 Leutwein issued a proclamation (as ordered by the German Reichskanzler dated 23.07.1903) that enacted the long-awaited credit regulations. The traders immediately started collecting their outstanding debts – relentlessly and with feverish haste. At the beginning of December, the first "native reserve" for the Ovaherero was created at Otjimbingwe. Further reserves were envisaged for Okahandja, Waterberg and Gobabis. Okahandja District Chief Zürn’s undiplomatic negotiation style for the establishment of the envisaged Okahandja reserve border was one of the reasons for the outbreak of the Ovaherero-German War of January 1904. In the case of the delimitation of the Waterberg reserve border, Zürn even forged the signatures of the Ovaherero leaders. This was another cause for the outbreak of the German-Namibian War in January 1904.

At the end of the month Samuel Maharero allegedly took the decision to fight the Germans. There is, however, evidence that the Ovaherero had no direct intentions to wage a war against the Germans. The war was rather inflamed by the provocative approach of the German settlers and the aggressive attitude of Zürn. However, the Ovaherero were well-armed and an early, good rainy season favoured the struggle against German colonialism. Leutwein estimated that the Ovaherero had between 7 000 and 8 000 armed men (with 2 500 rifles). On the 11.01.1904 Samuel Maharero ordered all Ovaherero chiefs to take up arms against the Germans. He ordered them to "refrain from touching missionaries, English, Basters, Berg-Damaras, Namas and Boers" (also women and children - as a rule - had to be remained untouched) . There were doubts concerning the date of this order. It is possible that Maharero wrote this letter after the outbreak of the war (around 20.01.1904), after the first shots were fired in Okahandja. But, it is not clear at all, who actually fired these first shots (Missionary Diehl reported that only the Germans fired on his house, not the Ovaherero). Samuel Maharero tried to involve the Basters, under Hermanus van Wyk and the Nama under Hendrik Witbooi, in the struggle. The two letters Samuel sent to Witbooi never reached him, and Van Wyk was not willing to support Samuel. Van Wyk handed over the letters for Witbooi to the Germans. In the second of these letters Samuel wrote: "All our obedience and patience with the Germans is of little avail, for each day they shoot someone dead for no reason at all. Hence I appeal to you, my Brother, not to hold aloof from the uprising, but to make your voice heard so that all Africa may take up arms against the Germans. Let us die fighting rather than die as a result of maltreatment, imprisonment or some other form of calamity." These letters were also written after the outbreak of the war. They can therefore not be used as proof of a premeditated insurrection on the part of the Ovaherero.

On the other hand, from the very beginning of the German presence in SWA, substantial numbers of Ovaherero were employed by the German army, either as labourers, wagon drivers, herdsmen, batsmen or even soldiers. After the outbreak of the war a number of Ovaherero continued to serve in the German forces. Some were even killed on the German side.

Gustav Duft tried to negotiate with Samuel Maharero at Okahandja on that fateful day (11.01.1904), to no avail because Maharero and Assa Riarua were at Osona. Chief Ouandja agreed to speak to Duft to win time. On the 12.01.1904, after the first shots in Okahandja (allegedly fired by the Germans), the Ovaherero revolted in many parts of SWA. In the first couple of days 123 Germans were killed (among them 13 active soldiers, seven Boers and five women), goods and cattle were stolen, and infrastructures, buildings and properties were destroyed, mainly between Okahandja and Omaruru. The uprising took place due to loss of control and ownership of traditional land (German native reserve policy), usury by traders, increasing debts, cases of rape, the sale of alcohol, the increasing ill-treatment of Ovaherero and threats to Samuel Maharero’s life (by Okahandja District Chief Zürn. Missionary Wandres reported Gustav Duft saying: "If Zürn had not been in Okahandja, then the issue would not have developed in the manner that it did"). Zürn was later threatened with a German court martial because he was held responsible for the outbreak of the war. A further war cause was the absence of Maharero, Assa Riarua and Leutwein from Okahandja. The many rumours amongst German settlers and soldiers of a possible Ovaherero uprising added to the outbreak of the war, although there were no signs about any envisaged Ovaherero insurrection in early January. On 06.01.1904 Kurt Streitwolf reported on a meeting with Traugott Tjetjo in the Gobabis district. Streitwolf informed that he did not believe that war was imminent. At the Waterberg, Sergeant G Rademacher and missionary Wilhelm Eich reacted to reports by Mrs. Sonnenberg, whose husband, trader G Sonnenberg, had held discussions with Chief David Kambazembi on the growing indebtedness of the Ovaherero. Rademacher and Eich reported that war was unlikely, but that Kambazembi was preparing for a visit of Chief Ouandja at Otjikururume.

The Gobabis-Dama supported the Ovaherero. The Germans were supported by Hendrik Witbooi, but in October 1904 Witbooi was prompted to revolt against German rule by the countless murders and ruthlessness of the Germans, in the light of which – especially after the Waterberg battle in August 1904 – Witbooi’s soldiers realised that the Germans were bent on wiping out all Africans regardless of their tribe or sex.

Leutwein later reported that the war came as a complete surprise to all "white" settlers, including the missionaries, due to the admirable discipline of the Ovaherero in keeping their uprising secret. The reinforcement of soldiers from Germany was slow. Ultimately 14 000 German soldiers were involved, 1500 of whom died. This war effort cost Germany 585 million Mark. The Ovaherero resistance effort was characterised by disorganisation and a lack of co-ordination. The uprising was triggered off at different times: Okahandja: 12.01.; Omaruru: 17.01. and Otjimbingwe: 23.01. New research revealed that the Ovaherero had not anticipated the outbreak of the war, and were quite unprepared for it. Far from seeking their initial overwhelming military advantage, the Ovaherero later sought to withdraw from central SWA and awaited the return of cooler minds (Theodor Leutwein) and the beginning of negotiations. Unfortunately, negotiations were not allowed by the Germans.

Duft, with German official Maass, tried again to negotiate with the Ovaherero but was warned to remain within the Okahandja fort. Only then did violence erupt (12.01.1904). On the 12./13.01. German troops under the command of Lieutenants Boysen and Voigts of Windhoek tried to rescue Okahandja via the railway line, but were driven back. Boysen and six other German soldiers were killed. An armoured train under the command of Lieutenant von Zülow left Swakopmund to rescue Okahandja. The train reached the Waldau railway station on 13.01. One day later, the post offices at Waldau and the Waterberg were destroyed. Violence also erupted at Omarasa, north of the Waterberg. The Waterberg military station was conquered by the Ovaherero. All soldiers under the command of Sergeant G Rademacher were killed. Samuel Maharero allowed missionary Eich with his small party of German women and children safe passage from Waterberg to Okahandja (date of arrival: 09.04.). Headmen such as Michael Tyiseseta, Ouandja, Assa Riarua and David Kambazembi agreed to the safe passage of the Germans. The next day Kurt Streitwolf was involved in a battle with Ovaherero at Oparakane. Von Zülow reached Okahandja with the armoured train following repairs to the partly destroyed railway line between Waldau and Okahandja. Franke, setting out from Gibeon, broke through to Windhoek after only four-and-a-half days (380 km distance) aiming to relieve Okahandja (27.01.) and Omaruru. On 16.01. Gobabis was besieged. A German company from Outjo was ambushed at Okanjande near present-day Otjiwarongo, and on the next day the Ovaherero of Omaruru under Chief Michael Tyiseseta started fighting.

On 18.01. the German battleship "Habicht" landed at Swakopmund, bringing fresh German troops who proceeded into the interior under the command of Second Lieutenant Gygas. The Ovaherero under the command of Headman Batona were defeated in the battle of Uitkomst near Grootfontein. One day later the military station of Otavi was relieved by Germans coming from Grootfontein, and Von Zülow tried to break through from Okahandja to Windhoek but could not proceed further than Osona where he was engaged in a skirmish. On 20.01. a repair team began to repair the destroyed state railway line between Waldau and Karibib. With the outbreak of the war all Ovaherero living in Swakopmund, and those prisoners-of-war captured in the first days of the war, were placed on the ship "Eduard Bohlen" which was anchored off the coast of Swakopmund. Not knowing what to do with the prisoners, the authorities decided to offer the male prisoners to the South African mines at the Witwatersrand which gladly accepted them as cheap forced labour. The next two days saw that the Germans under the command of Lieutenant Maul proceeding to Hoffnung, east of Windhoek, Germans under Lieutenant von Niewitecki relieved the military stations of Seeis, Hohewarte and Hatsamas, and Franke defeated the Ovaherero in the battle of Teufelsbach north of Windhoek.

On the 23.01.1904 the Ovaherero of Otjimbingwe under Chief Zacharias Zeraua started fighting. Samuel Maharero tried in vain to draw the Ovambo into the revolt. According to Finnish missionary Albin Savola, an Ovaherero messenger requested King Kambonde kaMpingana to help the Ovaherero against the Germans. But the Finnish missionaries counselled the Ovambo to remain neutral, and in only one instance – King Nehale’s attack on Namutoni – did they side with the Ovaherero. On 28.01.1904 five hundred Ovambo under King Nehale of the Ondonga area attacked Fort Namutoni. The seven German defenders under the command of Sergeant Großmann fled via Nagusib to Tsumeb during the night. At Nagusib they were rescued by a patrol which was sent by Lieutenant Volkmann from Grootfontein. The Fort Namutoni was destroyed by Nehale’s forces.

On the same day (28.01.) Franke advanced in the direction of Otjosazu but a battle ensued at the slopes of the Kaiser Wilhelm Mountain and the Ovaherero were driven out of their mountain stronghold. Franke moved further to Karibib and Omaruru. On 04.02. Omaruru was only relieved after a fierce battle between Franke and the Ovaherero. Three days later Von Winkler’s section left Windhoek for the east, following a southern route via Kaukurus and Gobabis.

On 09.02.1904 a German sea battalion under the command of Major von Glasenapp arrived in Swakopmund. Two days later Leutwein arrived in Swakopmund from Port Nolloth with the steamer "Ernst Woermann". He commented that "If I were now to go to Okahandja I would allow Samuel to come to me, and you would see, the revolt would be ended". However, he divided the German troops into four sections: a western section under Von Estorff tasked to advance via Omaruru, a main section under Leutwein tasked to attack Samuel Maharero who was probably at Otjosonjati (Königs-Albertshöhe) in the upper Swakop valley, Major von Glasenapp’s eastern section tasked to attack Tjetjo and Lieutenant Gygas’ section tasked to attack the Otjimbingwe Ovaherero. During mid-February, seeking to negotiate, Leutwein sent a letter to Samuel Maharero to ascertain his whereabouts. The German Government reprimanded Leutwein for this attempt to negotiate. When the letter reached the Ovaherero they were assembled in the area of Otjosazu, Ongandjira and Otjosonjati. Missionary Kuhlmann managed to meet Samuel at Otjosonjati where Samuel gave the impression that he would like to end the war.

On 14.02.1904, in the east, Von Glasenapp’s section (leaving Windhoek on 17.02.) and Von Fischel’s section (leaving Windhoek on 14.02.) followed a different route to Von Winkler’s section. Von Glasenapp and Von Fischel moved from Kapp’s Farm via Okaseva in the direction of Kehoro and later to Kanduwe. One day later Germans under Von Fischel were defeated in the battle of Seeis. On 16.02. Gygas defeated the Otjimbingwe Ovaherero under Chief Zeraua in the battle of Lievenberg. On 20.02. the battle of Groß Barmen was won by the Germans, but areas south-west of Okahandja were only cleared after a further battle at Klein Barmen. On the next day Leutwein warned against a policy of exterminating the Ovaherero. On 24.02. Von Glasenapp met Von Winkler at Groß Owikango. The Ovaherero left Kehoro and one day later Victor Franke defeated the Omaruru Ovaherero in the battle of Otjihinamaparero. He wrote in his diary for this day: "A wounded man with a terribly damaged leg is brought in . ... He is questioned and then shot, Von Arnim executes him properly. He is shot from the back without noticing what is happening to the unfortunate man."

On 06.03.1904 Samuel Maharero replied to Leutwein’s letter in great detail (letter from Otjosonjati). From Kuhlmann’s information German headquarters detected Samuel’s whereabouts in the upper Swakop River, west of the Onjati Mountains. About the outbreak of the war Samuel writes the following: "And finally at dawn [11.01.] he [ Zürn] added soldiers to the fort [Okahandja] ... and called me, but if I had come they would have shot me. Because I realised this I fled. Then Leutnant Zürn sent people of the gun on my path to follow me and shoot me. This incensed me and consequently I killed the whites [Mr. and Mrs. Dickmann as well as settler Kuntze] which had damaged us, because my death was ordered. This I heard from a white man present here named M. von Michaelis. This is how the war began. It was initiated by the traders and Zürn. I indicate how the war started, it is not mine. Question the traders and Leutnant Zürn as to their war, when they have told you then we can talk about it. The present war is that of Zürn [Otjiherero: Nambano ovita ovia Zürn].

On 11.03.1904 Leutwein reported that Samuel was positioned along the line of Otjosazu, Okatumba at the Swakop River and Katjapia (with ±1 000 rifles); that Chief Michael Tyiseseta was moving from the Etjo Mountains in an eastward direction (with ±500 rifles); that the Tjetjo community had retreated from Kehoro at the Black Nossob River in the direction of the Onjati Mountains (with ±1 000 rifles); and that more Ovaherero under the command of Zeraua (with ±1 000 rifles) could be found in the area of Otjimbingwe at the Sney River, and at Lievenberg and Oruware at the Swakop River. One day later Von Glasenapp’s unit marched along the Epukiro omuramba (fossil river) via Kanduwe, and Von Winkler along the Black Nossob River to Onjatu where the Germans pursued the Ovaherero under the command of Tjetjo. On 13.03. the battle of Owikokorero was fought between Von Glasenapp and the Ovaherero under Tjetjo, with heavy losses for the Germans (total losses were nearly 70%: seven officers were killed, three wounded and 19 soldiers killed, three wounded). Among others, Hugo von Francois and Lieutenant Eggers were killed. On 16.03. in a skirmish at Erindi Okaserandu, the Germans under the command of Lieutenant Leutwein were surprised by Ovaherero and suffered losses. At the end of March Zeraua left the area of Oruware and moved via Teufelsbach to the east. Zeraua joined the Otjimbingwe and Omaruru Ovaherero at Samuel’s station at Ongandjira in the upper Swakop valley. On 01.04.1904 Von Glasenapp’s unit proceeded in the direction of Otjikuoko without meeting the Tjetjo community. Two days later Tjetjo met the Germans in a battle at a site between Okaharui and Otjikuara, with heavy losses on both sides. On 09.04. the battle of Ongandjira was fought with heavy losses on both sides. The Ovaherero had to give way before a sustained German artillery bombardment commenced, and they escaped in a northerly direction. Samuel Maharero had to retreat to the waterholes of Okatumba and Oviumbo. On 13.04. the battle of Oviumbo was fought and the Germans were nearly defeated. Leutwein decided to withdraw to Otjosazu and await troop reinforcements from Germany. In Germany he was subsequently heavily criticised for his decision. The overwhelming majority in Germany still did not recognise that the Ovaherero nation was fighting for its survival. Von Glasenapp’s unit remained defensive for the time being and was allowed to march to Otjihangwe and later to Otjihaenena (arriving on 24.04.).

On 19.04.1904 the main body of Ovaherero started to move north in the direction of the Waterberg. They first moved to the vlei (pan) at Engarawau. Here they remained until the Germans approached again. Leutwein urged the German press to stop reporting that after the termination of the war all tribal structures – of the Nama communities too – would be destroyed, the chiefdoms abolished and all communities disarmed. This propaganda created considerable unrest among all SWA indigenes, and was one of the causes of the Nama resistance war fought from August 1904 onwards. He wrote the following: "I do not concur with those fanatics who want to see the Herero destroyed altogether. Apart from the fact that a people of 60 000 or 70 000 is not easy to annihilate, I would consider such a move a grave mistake from an economic point of view. We need the Herero as cattle breeders, though on a small scale, and especially as labourers. It will be quite sufficient if they are politically dead." On 28.04. the battle of Okangundi was fought, ending in defeat for the Ovaherero. At the end of May 1904 Leutwein, shortly before General Lothar von Trotha arrived, made one last attempt for a negotiated settlement. He issued the following proclamation, printed in Otjiherero, to the Ovaherero: "You well know that after you have risen against your protector, the German Kaiser, nothing else awaits you but a fight to the death. Until then I cannot stop the war. However, you can stop the war, by coming over to me, handing in your guns and ammunition and receiving your expected punishment. ... ". Subsequently Von Trotha turned down Leutwein’s negotiation efforts and henceforth a negotiated peace was out of the question. When Salatiel Kambazembi sought a negotiated surrender, based on Leutwein’s proclamation of 30.05., Von Trotha noted "That will hardly help him; fought together, caught together, hanged together."

On 11.06.1904 Lothar von Trotha arrived in the territory to take over the military command from Leutwein. Leutwein remained Governor of German SWA. From the beginning, Von Trotha was quite outspoken about his mission, which he saw as personal involvement in a "War of Races". He was convinced that "African tribes ... will only succumb to violent force. It has been and remains my policy to exercise this violence with gross terrorism and even with cruelty. I annihilate the African tribes by floods of money and blood. ... ". By the middle of June Samuel Maharero and his people arrived at Okahitua at the Omatako omuramba. The Witbooi Nama were positioned south of the omuramba, the main German body was north of Owikokorero, and the unit under the command of Von Estorff was at Okamatangara. By July Samuel Maharero occupied the area of Otjozondjupa and the Hamakari River, while Michael Tyiseseta concentrated his forces at Omuveroume between the Little and Great Waterberg. At the beginning of August the German troops had the following initial position for the Waterberg battle: Unit Von Estorff near Otjahewita; Unit Von der Heyde at Omutjatjeira; Unit Mueller at Erindi Ongoahere; Unit Deimling at Okateitei; Unit Von Fiedler at Orupemparora and Unit Volkmann near Otjenga.

On 10.08.1904 Von Trotha planned the final battle from his headquarters at Ombuatjipiro. He put his plans in his own words: "My initial plan for the operation, which I always adhered to, was to encircle the masses of Herero at Waterberg, and to annihilate these masses with a simultaneous blow, then to establish various stations to hunt down and disarm the splinter groups who escaped, later to lay hands on the captains by putting prize money on their heads and finally to sentence them to death". The German troops had the following position on this day: Unit Von Estorff at Okomiparum; Unit Von der Heyde at a position 15 km north east of Hamakari (Ohamakari); Unit Mueller at Ombuatjipiro; Unit Deimling at Okateitei; Unit Von Fiedler at the Osondjache Mountain and Unit Volkmann near Otjenga. On 11.08. the Waterberg battle began. The fighting took place mainly at the areas south-east of the Waterberg (Klein Hamakari and Hamakari (Ohamakari)). There were great losses on both sides. The heaviest fighting occurred at the Hamakari waterhole. The main German section under Von Trotha advanced from Ombuatjipiro to Hamakari. Berthold von Deimling proceeded from Omuveroume. Von der Heyde attacked from Okakarara, east of Hamakari. At Otjosongombe Von Estorff started firing on Ovaherero, and defeated them early on 12.08. All other advances planned by the Germans failed on this day. Von Deimling did not succeed in realising Von Trotha’s plan to trap and defeat the Ovaherero. An official report later announced: "The bold enterprise shows up in the most brilliant light the ruthless energy of the German command in pursuing their beaten enemy. No pains, no sacrifices were spared in eliminating the last remnants of enemy resistance. Like a wounded beast the enemy was tracked down from one waterhole to the next, until finally he became a victim of his own environment. The arid Omaheke was to complete what the German army had begun: the extermination of the Herero nation." Major Stuhlmann described in his diary for this day a scene from the battle of Ohamakari where he reflected on the horrors of war and of a wounded Ovaherero child lying next to his cannon: " ... the little worm had flung his arm around the wheel of the cannon, which had possibly destroyed his other family members ... we had been explicitly told beforehand, that this dealt with the extermination of a whole tribe, nothing living was to be spared." Many dead Ovaherero soldiers were buried by the Germans on Hamakari (Ongwero). On 12.08. Von Deimling advanced to Hamakari, and this was the last straw for the Ovaherero who started fleeing in a south-easterly direction into the waterless Omaheke.

One day later (13.08.1904) Von Deimling and Von Mühlenfels set off in hot pursuit of the main group of Ovaherero advancing to Omutjatjewa. A one-day delay gave Samuel Maharero a lead and saved his life because the Germans were unable to catch up. But a tragic scene unfolded: a nation fled without food or water. The German troops proceeded as far as Ombujo-Wakune. Samuel reached the waterholes of Erindi-Endeka. On 15.08. Von Estorff and Von der Heyde defeated the Ovaherero in the battle of Omatupa and prevented them from escaping in a north-easterly direction. The next day saw Von Trotha's announcement of new battle plans to prevent the Ovaherero from re-establishing themselves in the territory. Consequently the Germans tried to shut off the Omaheke on a line reaching from Otjimanangombe via Epata, Otjosondu and Osondema to Otjituuo. For physical and strategic reasons the Germans were not able to realise these plans in their entirety. On 21.08. Von Trotha fixed a price of 5 000 Mark on Samuel Maharero’s head. During September the Ovaherero assembled at Okahandja North between the Omatako omuramba and the Eiseb omuramba. They fled further via Otjinene, Epata, Osombo-Windimbe (Ozombo ja Windimba) and Erindi-Ombahe, following the course of the Eiseb omuramba. Zacharias Zeraua from Otjimbingwe reported later that the chiefs Samuel Maharero from Okahandja, Banjo from Otjombonde, David and Salatiel Kambazembi from Waterberg, Ouandja from Otjikururume, Kayata from Otjihaenena, Michael Tyiseseta from Omaruru, Katjahingi and Assa Riarua had assembled at Osombo Onjatu at the Eiseb omuramba. The chiefs Mambo and Tjetjo were also at the Eiseb omuramba, at the waterholes Otjinene and Epata.

On 02.09.1904 Von Estorff’s forces attacked Owinauanaua, dislodging the chiefs Mambo and Tjetjo and forcing them to flee eastwards in the direction of the Bechuanaland Protectorate. Tjetjo died of thirst at Oruaromunjo and Mambo died of exhaustion while following Tjetjo. The few Ovaherero who survived the thirst, including Samuel Maharero, arrived later in Bechuanaland. This was the second wave of Ovaherero to flee into present-day Botswana (after the Ovambanderu war of 1896). Some Ovaherero also escaped northwards into Ovamboland. For instance, Daniel Kariko, the former group leader from Okombahe, fled to the Ongandjera King, Tshaanika Tsha Natshilongo after first escaping to Walvis Bay. Later he moved to South Africa. During their move to the north, some Ovaherero clashed with the San group of the Hai||om under the leadership of the Hai||om Chief Arisib. Few Ovaherero were killed by the Hai||om in the skirmish of Namutoni. Ondonga King Nehale later gave an order to kill Arisib. Other Ovaherero fled into the Kaokoveld, the Kavango (Omuramba rivers south of the Okavango River into the area of the Uukwangali King Himarua as well as the Omuramba Dikundu near Andara) and Angola (Fort Dirico (Gciriku area in the Kavango) and Humpata). Others again moved to Shakawe in the northern Bechuanaland and the Caprivi Strip (Kabulabula at the Chobe River). Some Ovaherero managed to slip through the German cordons and headed westwards into central SWA, and had to remain living undetected in the more inhospitable areas of the territory (Khomas Hochland and the course of the Kuiseb River).

On 23.09.1904 Von Estorff requested Von Trotha to start negotiations with the Ovaherero, but the request was rejected. However, one week later Von Trotha decided not to pursue the Ovaherero any further. On 02.10.1904 Von Trotha issued a proclamation threatening the Ov

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